In the interaction between Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) and the generalist herbivorous insect Spodoptera littoralis, little is known about early events in defense signaling and their link to downstream phytohormone pathways. S. littoralis oral secretions induced both Ca2+ and phytohormone elevation in Arabidopsis. Plant gene expression induced by oral secretions revealed up-regulation of a gene encoding a calmodulin-like protein, CML42. Functional analysis of cml42 plants revealed more resistance to herbivory than in the wild type, because caterpillars gain less weight on the mutant, indicating that CML42 negatively regulates plant defense; cml42 also showed increased aliphatic glucosinolate content and hyperactivated transcript accumulation of the jasmonic acid (JA)-responsive genes VSP2 and Thi2.1 upon herbivory, which might contribute to increased resistance. CML42 up-regulation is negatively regulated by the jasmonate receptor Coronatine Insensitive1 (COI1), as loss of functional COI1 resulted in prolonged CML42 activation. CML42 thus acts as a negative regulator of plant defense by decreasing COI1-mediated JA sensitivity and the expression of JA-responsive genes and is independent of herbivory-induced JA biosynthesis. JA-induced Ca2+ elevation and root growth inhibition were more sensitive in cml42, also indicating higher JA perception. Our results indicate that CML42 acts as a crucial signaling component connecting Ca2+ and JA signaling. CML42 is localized to cytosol and nucleus. CML42 is also involved in abiotic stress responses, as kaempferol glycosides were down-regulated in cml42, and impaired in ultraviolet B resistance. Under drought stress, the level of abscisic acid accumulation was higher in cml42 plants. Thus, CML42 might serve as a Ca2+ sensor having multiple functions in insect herbivory defense and abiotic stress responses.

Rhynchosporium commune is a haploid fungus causing scald or leaf blotch on barley, other Hordeum spp. and Bromus diandrus.TaxonomyRhynchosporium commune is an anamorphic Ascomycete closely related to the teleomorph Helotiales genera Oculimacula and Pyrenopeziza.Disease symptomsRhynchosporium commune causes scald‐like lesions on leaves, leaf sheaths and ears. Early symptoms are generally pale grey oval lesions. With time, the lesions acquire a dark brown margin with the centre of the lesion remaining pale green or pale brown. Lesions often merge to form large areas around which leaf yellowing is common. Infection frequently occurs in the leaf axil, which can lead to chlorosis and eventual death of the leaf.Life cycleRhynchosporium commune is seed borne, but the importance of this phase of the disease is not fully understood. Debris from previous crops and volunteers, infected from the stubble from previous crops, are considered to be the most important sources of the disease. Autumn‐sown crops can become infected very soon after sowing. Secondary spread of disease occurs mainly through splash dispersal of conidia from infected leaves. Rainfall at the stem extension growth stage is the major environmental factor in epidemic development.Detection and quantificationRhynchosporium commune produces unique beak‐shaped, one‐septate spores both on leaves and in culture. The development of a specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and, more recently, quantitative PCR (qPCR) has allowed the identification of asymptomatic infection in seeds and during the growing season.Disease controlThe main measure for the control of R. commune is the use of fungicides with different modes of action, in combination with the use of resistant cultivars. However, this is constantly under review because of the ability of the pathogen to adapt to host plant resistance and to develop fungicide resistance.

Cortinarius lebre Garrido, a common edible mushroom from central Chile, is distinct from other Cortinarii by its strong, naphtalene-like smell. The relevant volatile compounds were detected by gas chromatography - mass spectrometry and identified as indole together with 1-octen-3-ol, octane-3-one, and octan-3-ol.

Plant receptor-like kinases (RLKs) function in diverse signaling pathways, including the responses to microbial signals in symbiosis and defense. This versatility is achieved with a common overall structure: an extracytoplasmic domain (ectodomain) and an intracellular protein kinase domain involved in downstream signal transduction. Various surfaces of the leucine-rich repeat (LRR) ectodomain superstructure are utilized for interaction with the cognate ligand in both plant and animal receptors. RLKs with lysin-motif (LysM) ectodomains confer recognitional specificity toward N-acetylglucosamine-containing signaling molecules, such as chitin, peptidoglycan (PGN), and rhizobial nodulation factor (NF), that induce immune or symbiotic responses. Signaling downstream of RLKs does not follow a single pattern; instead, the detailed analysis of brassinosteroid (BR) signaling, innate immunity, and symbiosis revealed at least three largely nonoverlapping pathways. In this review, we focus on RLKs involved in plant-microbe interactions and contrast the signaling pathways leading to symbiosis and defense.

A novel strategy for the formation, without the need for organic solvents, of stable giant proteopolymersomes from the highly water-soluble triblock copolymer poly(2,3-dihydroxypropyl methacrylate)-b-poly(propylene oxide)-b-poly(2,3-dihydroxypropyl methacrylate) and the protein assembly streptavidin (SAv)-biotin-bovine serum albumin is presented. The method yields bioactive polymersomes with sizes in the tens of micrometers range having an SAv-functionalized membrane, thus, offering binding sites for a broad range of biotin conjugates. The vesiculation mechanism and the distribution of polymer and proteins in the proteopolymersomes membrane are investigated by confocal laser scanning microscopy and supported by molecular dynamic simulations.

The chemical composition of the hydrodistilled leaf essential oil from Pulicaria stephanocarpa Balf Fil was determined by GC-MS analysis, and its antimicrobial, antioxidant and anticholinesterase (AChE) activities were evaluated. Eighty-three compounds were identified representing 97.2% of the total oil. (E)-Caryophyllene 13.4%, (E)-nerolidol 8.5%, caryophyllene oxide 8.5%, α-cadinol 8.2% spathulenol 6.8% and τ-cadinol 4.7%, were the main components. Antimicrobial activity of the oil, evaluated using the disc diffusion and broth dilution methods, demonstrated the highest susceptibility on Gram-positive bacteria and Candida albicans. The free radical scavenging ability of the oil was assessed by the DPPH assay to show antiradical activity with IC50 of 330 μg/mL. Moreover, the oil revealed an AChE inhibitory activity of 47% at a concentration of 200 μg/mL using Ellman's method.

The chemical composition, antimicrobial, antioxidant and cytotoxic activities of the essential oils isolated from the leaves of Plectranthus cylindraceus Hoechst. ex. Benth. (EOPC) and Meriandra benghalensis (Roxb.) Benth. (EOMB) were investigated. Sixteen compounds were identified in P. cylindraceus oil representing 94.5% of the oil content with thymol (68.5%), terpinolene (5.3%), β-selinene (4.7%), β-caryophyllene (4.0%), δ-cadinol (2.1%), and ar-curcumene (1.7%) as the major compounds. In M. benghalensis oil, 12 compounds were identified, which made up 82.0% of the total oil. The most abundant constituents were camphor (43.6%), 1,8-cineole (10.7%), α-eudesmol (5.8%), caryophyllene oxide (5.8%), camphene (5.3%) and borneol (3.4%). The antimicrobial activities of both oils were evaluated against five microorganisms with the disc diffusion test, the broth micro-dilution method and a semiquantitative bioautographic test. The most sensitive microorganisms for P. cylindraceus oil were S. aureus, B. subtilis, and C. albicans with inhibition zones of 38, 42, and 43 mm and MIC values of 0.39, 0.18, and, 0.18 μL/mL, respectively. M. benghalensis oil showed weak to moderate activity against the tested microorganisms. 2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay was employed to study the potential antioxidant activities of both oils. The antioxidant activity of P. cylindraceus oil (IC50 34.5 μg/mL) appeared to be higher than that of M. benghalensis oil (IC50 935 μg/mL). At a concentration of 100 μg/mL, EOMB showed a stronger cytotoxic activity, with growth inhibition of 71% against HT29 tumor cells, than EOPC (18%).

The chemical composition of the essential oil obtained from the leaves of Pulicaria undulata Gamal Ed Din (syn P. oriental sensu Schwartz and P. jaubertii Gamal Ed Din) was analyzed by GC-MS. Major compounds of P. undulata oil were the oxygenated monoterpenenes, carvotanacetone (91.4%) and 2,5-dimethoxy-p-cymene (2.6.%). The antimicrobial activity of the essential oil was evaluated against six microorganisms, Escherichia coli Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, methicillin-resistant S. aureus, Bacillus subtilis, and Candida albicans, using disc diffusion and broth microdilution methods. The oil showed the strongest bactericidal activity against Staphylococcus aureus and methicillin-resistant S. aureus, as well as Candida albicans. The essential oil showed moderate cytotoxic activity against MCF-7 breast tumor cells, with an IC50 of 64.6 ±13.7 μg/mL. Bioautographic assays were used to evaluate the acetylcholinesterase inhibitory effect as well as antifungal activity of the oil against Cladosporium cucumerinum.

Ammonia and selenoaldehydes are both problematic components in Ugi reactions. Here we report the efficient direct multicomponent synthesis of sensitive selenocysteinepeptides without the use of convertible (protected) primary amines, including suitable deprotection protocols for selenols.

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